ROAD CONSTRUSTION;Education and licensure

Civil engineers typically possess an academic degree in civil engineering. The length of study is three to five years, and the completed degree is designated as a bachelor of engineering, or a bachelor of science. The curriculum generally includes classes in physics, mathematics, project management, design and specific topics in civil engineering. After taking basic courses in most sub-disciplines of civil engineering, they move onto specialize in one or more sub-disciplines at advanced levels. While an undergraduate degree (BEng/BSc) normally provides successful students with industry-accredited qualification, some academic institutions offer post-graduate degrees (MEng/MSc), which allow students to further specialize in their particular area of interest.
In most countries, a bachelor's degree in engineering represents the first step towards professional certification, and a professional body certifies the degree program. After completing a certified degree program, the engineer must satisfy a range of requirements (including work experience and exam requirements) before being certified. Once certified, the engineer is designated as a professional engineer (in the United States, Canada and South Africa), a chartered engineer (in most Commonwealth countries), a chartered professional engineer (in Australia and New Zealand), or a European engineer (in most countries of the European Union). There are international agreements between relevant professional bodies to allow engineers to practice across national borders.The benefits of certification vary depending upon location. For example, in the United States and Canada, "only a licensed professional engineer may prepare, sign and seal, and submit engineering plans and drawings to a public authority for approval, or seal engineering work for public and private clients."This requirement is enforced under provincial law such as the Engineers Act in Quebec.No such legislation has been enacted in other countries including the United Kingdom. In Australia, state licensing of engineers is limited to the state of Queensland. Almost all certifying bodies maintain a code of ethics which all members must abide by.[19]Engineers must obey contract law in their contractual relationships with other parties. In cases where an engineer's work fails, he may be subject to the law of tort of negligence, and in extreme cases, criminal charges.[20] An engineer's work must also comply with numerous other rules and regulations such as building codes and environmental law.

The Akashi Kaikyō Bridge in Japan, currently the world's longest suspension span.In general, civil engineering is concerned with the overall interface of human created fixed projects with the greater world. General civil engineers work closely with surveyors and specialized civil engineers to design grading, drainage, pavement, water supply, sewer service,dams, electric and communications supply. General civil engineering is also referred to as site engineering, a branch of civil engineering that primarily focuses on converting a tract of land from one usage to another. Site engineers spend time visiting project sites, meeting with stakeholders, and preparing construction plans. Civil engineers apply the principles of geotechnical engineering, structural engineering, environmental engineering, transportation engineering and construction engineering to residential, commercial, industrial and public works projects of all sizes and levels of construction.

Materials science and engineering

Materials science is closely related to civil engineering. It studies fundamental characteristics of materials, and deals with ceramics such as concrete and mix asphalt concrete, strong metals such as aluminum and steel, and polymers including polymethylmethacrylate (PMMA) and carbon fibers.Materials engineering involves protection and prevention (paints and finishes). Alloying combines two types of metals to produce another metal with desired properties. It incorporates elements of applied physics and chemistry. With recent media attention on nanoscience and nanotechnology, materials engineering has been at the forefront of academic research. It is also an important part of forensic engineering and failure analysis.

Coastal engineering

Oosterscheldekering, a storm surge barrier in the Netherlands.
Coastal engineering is concerned with managing coastal areas. In some jurisdictions, the terms sea defense and coastal protection mean defense against flooding and erosion, respectively. The term coastal defense is the more traditional term, but coastal management has become more popular as the field has expanded to techniques that allow erosion to claim land.

Construction engineering

Construction engineering involves planning and execution, transportation of materials, site development based on hydraulic, environmental, structural and geotechnical engineering. As construction firms tend to have higher business risk than other types of civil engineering firms do, construction engineers often engage in more business-like transactions, for example, drafting and reviewing contracts, evaluating logistical operations, and monitoring prices of supplies.

Earthquake engineering

Earthquake engineering involves designing structures to withstand hazardous earthquake exposures. Earthquake engineering is a sub-discipline of structural engineering. The main objectives of earthquake engineering are[21] to understand interaction of structures on the shaky ground; foresee the consequences of possible earthquakes; and design, construct and maintain structures to perform at earthquake in compliance with building codes.

Environmental engineering

Environmental engineering is the contemporary term for sanitary engineering, though sanitary engineering traditionally had not included much of the hazardous waste management and environmental remediation work covered by environmental engineering. Public health engineering and environmental health engineering are other terms being used.Environmental engineering deals with treatment of chemical, biological, or thermal wastes, purification of water and air, and remediation of contaminated sites after waste disposal or accidental contamination. Among the topics covered by environmental engineering are pollutant transport, water purification, waste water treatment, air pollution, solid waste treatment, and hazardous waste management. Environmental engineers administer pollution reduction, green engineering, and industrial ecology. Environmental engineers also compile information on environmental consequences of proposed actions.

Geotechnical engineering

A phase diagram of soil indicating the weights and volumes of air, soil, water, and voids.
Geotechnical engineering studies rock and soil supporting civil engineering systems. Knowledge from the field of soil science, materials science, mechanics, and hydraulics is applied to safely and economically design foundations, retaining walls, and other structures. Environmental efforts to protect groundwater and safely maintain landfills have spawned a new area of research called geoenvironmental engineering.
Identification of soil properties presents challenges to geotechnical engineers. Boundary conditions are often well defined in other branches of civil engineering, but unlike steel or concrete, the material properties and behavior of soil are difficult to predict due to its variability and limitation on investigation. Furthermore, soil exhibits nonlinear (stress-dependent) strength, stiffness, and dilatancy (volume change associated with application of shear stress), making studying soil mechanics all the more difficult.

Water resources engineering

Water resources engineering is concerned with the collection and management of water (as a natural resource). As a discipline it therefore combines elements of hydrology, environmental science, meteorology, conservation, and resource management. This area of civil engineering relates to the prediction and management of both the quality and the quantity of water in both underground (aquifers) and above ground (lakes, rivers, and streams) resources. Water resource engineers analyze and model very small to very large areas of the earth to predict the amount and content of water as it flows into, through, or out of a facility. Although the actual design of the facility may be left to other engineers.
Hydraulic engineering is concerned with the flow and conveyance of fluids, principally water. This area of civil engineering is intimately related to the design of pipelines, water supply network, drainage facilities (including bridges, dams, channels, culverts, levees, storm sewers), and canals. Hydraulic engineers design these facilities using the concepts of fluid pressure, fluid statics, fluid dynamics, and hydraulics, among others.

History of the civil engineering profession

Leonhard Euler developed the theory explaining the buckling of columns
Engineering has been an aspect of life since the beginnings of human existence. The earliest practice of civil engineering may have commenced between 4000 and 2000 BC in Ancient Egypt, the Indus Valley Civilization, and Mesopotamia (Ancient Iraq) when humans started to abandon a nomadic existence, creating a need for the construction of shelter. During this time, transportation became increasingly important leading to the development of the wheel and sailing.

Until modern times there was no clear distinction between civil engineering and architecture, and the term engineer and architect were mainly geographical variations referring to the same occupation, and often used interchangeably.The construction of pyramids in Egypt (circa 2700–2500 BC) were some of the first instances of large structure constructions. Other ancient historic civil engineering constructions include the Qanat water management system (the oldest is older than 3000 years and longer than 71 km,) the Parthenon by Iktinos in Ancient Greece (447–438 BC), the Appian Way by Roman engineers (c. 312 BC), the Great Wall of China by General Meng T'ien under orders from Ch'in Emperor Shih Huang Ti (c. 220 BC) and the stupas constructed in ancient Sri Lanka like the Jetavanaramaya and the extensive irrigation works in Anuradhapura. The Romans developed civil structures throughout their empire, including especially aqueducts, 

In 1818 the Institution of Civil Engineers was founded in London, and in 1820 the eminent engineer Thomas Telford became its first president. The institution received a Royal Charter in 1828, formally recognising civil engineering as a profession. Its charter defined civil engineering as:the art of directing the great sources of power in nature for the use and convenience of man, as the means of production and of traffic in states, both for external and internal trade, as applied in the construction of roads, bridges, aqueducts, canals, river navigation and docks for internal intercourse and exchange, and in the construction of ports, harbours, moles, breakwaters and lighthouses, and in the art of navigation by artificial power for the purposes of commerce, and in the construction and application of machinery, and in the drainage of cities and towns.History of civil engineering educationThe first private college to teach civil engineering in the United States was Norwich University, founded in 1819 by Captain Alden Partridge.The first degree in civil engineering in the United States was awarded by Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute in 1835. The first such degree to be awarded to a woman was granted by Cornell University to Nora Stanton Blatch in 1905.In the UK during the early 19th century, the division between civil engineering and military engineering (served by the Royal Military Academy, Woolwich), coupled with the demands of the Industrial Revolution, spawned new engineering education initiatives: the Royal Polytechnic Institution was founded in 1838, the private College for Civil Engineers in Putney was established in 1839, and the UK's first Chair of Engineering was established at the University of Glasgow in 1840.History of civil engineeringChichen Itza was a large pre-Columbian city in Mexico built by the Maya people of the Post Classic. The northeast column temple also covers a channel that funnels all the rainwater from the complex some 40 metres (130 ft) away to a rejollada, a former cenote.A Roman aqueduct [built circa 19 BC] near Pont du Gard, FranceCivil engineering is the application of physical and scientific principles for solving the problems of society, and its history is intricately linked to advances in understanding of physics and mathematics throughout history. Because civil engineering is a wide ranging profession, including several separate specialized sub-disciplines, its history is linked to knowledge of structures, materials science, geography, geology, soils, hydrology, environment, mechanics and other fields.Throughout ancient and medieval history most architectural design and construction was carried out by artisans, such as stonemasons and carpenters, rising to the role of master builder. Knowledge was retained in guilds and seldom supplanted by advances. Structures, roads and infrastructure that existed were repetitive, and increases in scale were incremental.One of the earliest examples of a scientific approach to physical and mathematical problems applicable to civil engineering is the work of Archimedes in the 3rd century BC, including Archimedes Principle, which underpins our understanding of buoyancy, and practical solutions such as Archimedes' screw. Brahmagupta, an Indian mathematician, used arithmetic in the 7th century AD, based on Hindu-Arabic numerals, for excavation (volume) computations.

CONSTRUSTION; About & surveying

Civil engineering is a professional engineering discipline that deals with the design, construction, and maintenance of the physical and naturally built environment, including works like roads, bridges, canals, dams, and buildings.Civil engineering is the second-oldest engineering discipline after military Engineering and it is defined to distinguish non-military engineering from military engineering. It is traditionally broken into several sub-disciplines including architectural engineering,enviornmental engineering, geotechnical engineering, control engineering, structural engineering, earthquake engineering, transportation engineering, forensic engineering, municipal or urban engineering, water resources engineering, materials engineering, wastewater engineering, offshore engineering, facade engineering,quantity surveying, coastal engineering,[4] construction surveying, and construction ] Civil engineering takes place in the public sector from municipal through to national governments, and in the private sector from individual homeowners through to international companies.

SURVEYING

 

Surveying is the process by which a surveyor measures certain dimensions that occur on or near the surface of the Earth. Surveying equipment, such as levels and theodolites, are used for accurate measurement of angular deviation, horizontal, vertical and slopedistances. With computerisation, electronic distance measurement (EDM), total stations, GPS surveying and laser scanning have to a large extent supplanted traditional instruments. Data collected by survey measurement is converted into a graphical representation of the Earth's surface in the form of a map. This information is then used by civil engineers, contractors and realtors to design from, build on, and trade, respectively. Elements of a structure must be sized and positioned in relation to each other and to site boundaries and adjacent structures. Although surveying is a distinct profession with separate qualifications and licensing arrangements, civil engineers are trained in the basics of surveying and mapping, as well as geographic information systems. Surveyors also lay out the routes of railways, tramway tracks, highways, roads, pipelines and streets as well as position other infrastructure, such as harbors, before construction.

Land surveying

BLM cadastral survey marker from 1992 in San Xavier, Arizona.
In the United States, Canada, the United Kingdom and most Commonwealth countries land surveying is considered to be a separate and distinct profession. Land surveyors are not considered to be engineers, and have their own professional associations and licensing requirements. The services of a licensed land surveyor are generally required for boundary surveys (to establish the boundaries of a parcel using its legal description) and subdivision plans (a plot or map based on a survey of a parcel of land, with boundary lines drawn inside the larger parcel to indicate the creation of new boundary lines and roads), both of which are generally referred to as Cadastral surveying.

Construction surveying

Construction surveying is generally performed by specialised technicians. Unlike land surveyors, the resulting plan does not have legal status. Construction surveyors perform the following tasks:
Surveying existing conditions of the future work site, including topography, existing buildings and infrastructure, and underground infrastructure when possible;
"lay-out" or "setting-out": placing reference points and markers that will guide the construction of new structures such as roads or buildings;
Verifying the location of structures during construction;
As-Built surveying: a survey conducted at the end of the construction project to verify that the work authorized was completed to the specifications set on plans.

ROAD CONSTRUSTION;Rumble strips boost work-zone safety in Wisconsin

 NHTSA reports another sobering statistic: at any given moment across the country, about 660,000 drivers are using a cell phone or other electronic device while driving. This alarming number has held constant since 2010. To road construction workers, it must feel like most of those 660,000 distracted drivers are driving through their work zone.

State and local agencies battle distracted driving on several fronts, through public awareness campaigns, legislation and enforcement. State departments of transportation implement policies and practices to reduce distracted driving crashes and improve safety on their roadways.

For example, the Wisconsin Department of Transportation (WDOT) recently reported that traffic fatalities nearly doubled when comparing February 2016 to February 2015.

A WDOT official said, “The fatalities are happening on all the roads. It’s not just one particular road, it’s everywhere. So people need to start buckling up, driving sober and paying attention. Put the phone away … distracted driving is a huge problem now.”

Earlier this month, Wisconsin Governor Scott Walker proclaimed the week of April l1 to be Work Zone Awareness Week in the state. Wisconsin lost three state workers in work zone accidents last year, two of them flaggers. To launch the 2016 Work Zone Awareness Week, WDOT announced a multi-pronged approach to improve driver behavior in work zones:
 

• Display traffic messages on its electronic signs on highways;

• Use social media to remind drivers to slow down and pay attention;

• Broadcast messages on TV and radio about work-zone safety; and

• Deploy law enforcement in work zones to enforce traffic laws.

A few weeks prior to this announcement, WDOT announced plans to deploy another traffic safety countermeasure to improve safety in work zones. Noting that the state had suffered 2,404 work-zone crashes, causing 945 injuries and 12 fatalities in 2015, WDOT announced plans to use temporary portable rumble strips (TPRS) in several 2016 work zones.

“Too often, drivers ignore signs telling them they're entering a construction zone,” WDOT Work Zone Operations Engineer Erin Schoon said. “Rumble strips are hard to ignore, and send a potentially life-saving message. Our hope is that every time a driver approaches any construction zone, they’ll be alert for workers and for slowing traffic.”

PSS RoadQuake Temporary Portable Rumble Strips (TPRS) alert drivers, especially distracted drivers, to changing road conditions, such as an upcoming work zone. As drivers cross an array of TPRS, they hear the familiar bumpety-bump, thumpety-thump of their tires crossing over the array, and this significant vibration is equal to the sounds and vibrations of a vehicle crossing milled-in strips. While drivers may or may not slow down, most will refocus their attention on their driving and on their surroundings.

In Marathon County, a county highway supervisor reported that his crews deployed the rumble strips at various construction sites on four-lane state roads for which they are responsible, in the fall of 2015, prior to the March announcement. Their road crews experienced safer work zones, noticing that most drivers were paying attention and slowing down after crossing the arrays.

The supervisor concluded that his workers “are happy with the results that the portable rumble strips provide in today’s high-volume traffic areas.”

In combination with the CRIB Cargo Carrier, which transports, deploys, removes and stores the rumble strips, thus reducing worker exposure to live traffic, Marathon County was able to increase road safety while protecting its workers in the process.

ROAD CONSTRUSTION; Bustos lobbies for Chicago-to-Quad Cities Amtrak service

U.S. Rep. Cheri Bustos (D-Ill.) is asking Illinois Republican Gov. Bruce Rauner to release previously approved state funding for a Chicago-to-Quad Cities Amtrak line.

 In a letter to the governor, the Democratic congresswoman from the Quad Cities area said she has met with business leaders, elected officials and families across central and western Illinois. “In these meetings, I have heard from countless people how important it is to follow through on the promise of connecting the Quad Cities and Chicago with passenger rail service,” Bustos wrote. Bustos also said the federal government has already provided an extension for the state to take advantage of federal funds for this project, but it expires June 30. “For the sake of our transportation system and our economy, I hope you will not allow these funds to expire without bringing their benefits to bear in the state of Illinois,” she wrote. The governor’s office said the project remains “under review” after an executive order Rauner signed last year froze grants and public works projects as part of a comprehensive look at state spending. Passenger rail service between Chicago and the Quad Cities ended in 1978.

ROAD CONSTRUSTION: PennDOT planning for challenges of self-driving technology

Users of the Pennsylvania Turnpike's Trip Talk app are part of pilot program – one that is transmitting live updates about the construction to their cars and into their phones. It might not sound like much – after all, our phones receive messages all the time – but it's a first step toward what researchers see as a connected future, one where cars will talk not only to other cars but the infrastructure they are traveling on.
 

By 2020 – just four years from now – vehicle-to-vehicle communication technology will be standard in most new cars. Cars will anonymously "talk" to the other vehicles around them, sharing not only information on location and speed – but also warning drivers of sudden decelerations in the traffic ahead or cars suddenly changing lanes or sitting in blind spots. Beyond that, vehicles will also eventually be able to talk to the road itself, receiving updates on nearby traffic conditions (the Turnpike's pilot program) or even something as simple as pinging a traffic light to change from red to green.

Over the next 20 to 30 years (being conservative), the automobile will undergo a revolution in technology that will fundamentally change its functional equation – largely by removing the driver.

How real is the technology? The Pennsylvania Department of Transportation (PennDOT) has already started long-range planning for connected and autonomous vehicles and what the technologies could mean for licensing, vehicle registration, infrastructure, etc.

Between 2020 and 2030 (again, being conservative) the first mass-market semi-autonomous vehicles are projected to hit the streets.

ROAD CONSTRUSTION: Study highlights hearing risk in construction

Prevention, early detection, and intervention to preclude additional hearing loss are essential to reducing worker disability caused by hearing impairment, says the research published in CDC’s Morbidity & Mortality Weekly Report.

 
Industry results highlight the high prevalence of hearing loss within the noise-exposed working population and the need for continued prevention efforts, especially in the mining, construction, and manufacturing sectors, said the researchers. Occupational hearing loss risks have been established within the construction sector; however, current noise regulations do not require audiometric testing for construction workers. Without testing to identify workers losing their hearing, intervention might be delayed or might not occur.

Occupational hearing loss, primarily caused by high noise exposure, is the most common US work-related illness, with approximately 22 million US workers exposed to hazardous occupational noise.

Workers with hearing impairment were represented in all industry sectors. The mining sector had the highest prevalence of workers with any impairment (17%) and with moderate or worse impairment (3%), followed by the construction sector (any impairment = 16%, moderate or worse impairment = 3%), and the manufacturing sector (14% and 2%).

The final sample included 1,413,789 audiograms for workers employed by 25,908 U.S. companies during 2003–2012. Among 99% of audiograms for which information on the worker’s sex was available, 78% were recorded for males and 22% for females. A greater percentage of males had any hearing impairment (14%) than did females (7%), and the prevalence and severity of impairment increased with age for both sexes. Among all industries, 13% of noise-exposed workers had any impairment and 2% had moderate or worse impairment.

Across all industries, 2.53 “healthy” years were lost annually per 1,000 noise-exposed workers. Workers in the mining and construction sectors lost 3.45 and 3.09 “healthy years” per 1,000 workers, respectively.